Maintaining Road

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s in the French AlpsA road is an identifiable Road number, way or Trail between two or more places.{{cite web | title = Major Roads of the United States | work = NationalAtlas.gov, Map Layer Info | publisher = United States Department of the Interior | date = March 13, 2006 17:07 | url = http://nationalatlas.gov/mld/roadtrl.html | format = Web | doi = | accessdate = March 24, 2007 --> Roads are typically smoothed, [Pavement (material), or otherwise prepared to allow easy [travel;{{cite web | title = Road Infrastructure Strategic Framework for South Africa | work = A Discussion Document | publisher = National Department of Transport (South Africa) | date = | url = http://www.transport.gov.za/library/docs/rifsa/infor.html | format = Web | doi = | accessdate = March 24, 2007 --> though they need not be, and historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal [construction or [Maintenance, repair and operations. In [urban areas roads may pass through a [city or [village and be named as [streets, serving a dual function as urban space [easement and route.{{cite web | title = What is the difference between a road and a street? | work = Word FAQ | publisher = Dictionary.com (Lexico Publishing Group, LLC) | date = 2007 | url = http://dictionary.reference.com/help/faq/language/d01.html | format = Web | doi = | accessdate = March 24, 2007 --> [Economics and [society depend heavily on efficient roads. In the [European Union 44 % of all [Good (economics and accounting) are moved by [trucks over roads and 85 % of all [persons are transported by [Automobiles, [buses or coaches on roads. {{cite web | title = Road Transport (Europe) | work = Overview | publisher = European Communities, Transportation | date = 15-02-2007 | url = http://ec.europa.eu/transport/road/index_en.htm | format = Web | doi = | accessdate = March 24, 2007 -->

Usage and etymology

In original usage, a "road" was simply any pathway fit for equestrianism. The word “street,” whose origin is the Latin strata, was kept for paved pathways that had been prepared to ease travel in some way. Thus, many "Roman Roads" have the word "street" as part of their name. Roads are a prerequisite for road transport of goods on wheeled vehicles.

Words with related usage include, Avenue, Boulevard, Court, Drive, Freeway, Highway, Lane, Street, Turnpike and Way.

History Roman road in Pompeii.That the first pathways were the trails made by animals has not been universally accepted, arguing that animals do not follow constant paths. Others believe that some roads originated from humans following animals trails. The Icknield Way is given as an example of this type road origination were man and animal both selected the same natural line. By about 10,000 BC, rough pathways were used by human travelers.

Historical road construction dating to 4000 BC

Cobblestone Pavement (material) streets are found in the city of Ur in the Middle East dating back to 4000 BC

Corduroy road are found dating to 4,000 BC in Glastonbury, England

The timber trackway; Sweet Track causeway in England, is one of the oldest engineered roads discovered and the oldest timber trackway discovered in Northern Europe. Built in winter 39th century BC or spring 39th century BC, Dendrochronology enabled very precise dating. It has been claimed to be the oldest road in the world.

Brick paved streets were used in India as early as 3000 BC

In 500 BC, Darius I the Great started an extensive road system for Persia (Iran), including the famous Royal Road which was one of the finest highways of its time. The road remained in use after Roman times.

In ancient times, transport by river was far easier and faster than transport by road, especially considering the cost of road construction and the difference in carrying capacity between carts and river barges. A hybrid of road transport and ship transport beginning in about 1740 is the horse-drawn boat in which the horse follows a cleared path along the river bank.

From about 312 BC, the Roman Empire built straight strong stone Roman roads throughout Europe and North Africa, in support of its military campaigns. At its peak the Roman Empire was connected by 29 major roads moving out from Rome and covering 78,000 kilometers or 52,964 Roman miles of paved roads.

In the 1600's road construction and maintenance in Britain was traditionally done on a local parish basis. This resulted in a poor and variable state of roads. To remedy this, the first of the 'Turnpike Trusts' around 1706, to build good roads and collect tolls from passing vehicles. Eventually there were approximately 1,100 Trusts in Britain and some 36,800 km of engineered roads. The Rebecca Riots in Carmarthenshire and Rhayader from 1839 to 1844 contributed to having a Royal Commission and the demise of the system in 1844.

Road transport economics Transport economics is a branch of economics that deals with the allocation of resources within the transport sector and has strong linkages with civil engineering. Transport economics differs from some other branches of economics in that the assumption of a spaceless, instantaneous economy does not hold. People and goods flow over networks at certain speeds. Demands peak. Advanced ticket purchase is often induced by lower fares. The networks themselves may or may not be competitive. A single trip (the final good from the point-of-view of the consumer) may require bundling the services provided by several firms, agencies and modes.

Although transport systems follow the same supply and demand theory as other industries, the complications of network effects and choices between non-similar goods (e.g. car and bus travel) make estimating the demand for transportation facilities difficult. The development of models to estimate the likely choices between the non-similar goods involved in transport decisions "discrete choice" models led to the development of the important branch of econometrics, and a Nobel Prize for Daniel McFadden.{{cite web "for his development of theory and methods for analyzing discrete choice" | publisher = Nobel Foundation | date = 2000 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/2000/index.html | format = Web | accessdate = May 2, 2007 -->

In transport, demand can be measured in numbers of journeys made or in total distance traveled across all journeys (e.g. passenger-kilometres for public transport or vehicle-kilometres of travel (VKT) for private transport). Supply is considered to be a measure of capacity. The price of the good (travel) is measured using the generalised cost of travel, which includes both money and time expenditure. The effect of increases in supply (capacity) are of particular interest in transport economics (see induced demand), as the potential environmental consequences are significant.

Road building and maintenance is an area of economic activity that remains dominated by the public sector (though often through private sector General contractors). Roads (except those on private property not accessible to the general public) are typically paid for by taxes (often raised through levies on fuel), though some public roads, especially highways are funded by toll roads.

Environmental aspects Prior to the advent of the internal combustion engine, a principal environmental effect was production of animal excrement from horses, cattle and other animals on drovers' roads and other streets. In the 19th century this issue became significant enough to have some European city officials call for more cleanliness on the roads. Beginning in the 20th century the excrement issue has been overshadowed by vehicle production of noise and air pollution emissions.

Motor vehicle traffic on roads generate noise pollution especially at higher operating speeds. Therefore, considerable noise health effects are expected from road systems used by large numbers of motor vehicles. Noise mitigation strategies exist to reduce sound levels at nearby sensitive receptors. The idea that road design could be influenced by acoustical engineering considerations first arose about 1973. C.Michael Hogan, Analysis of highway noise, Journal of Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, Volume 2, Number 3, Biomedical and Life Sciences and Earth and Environmental Science Issue, Pages 387-392, September, 1973, Springer Verlag, Netherlands ISSN 0049-6979

Motor vehicles operating on roads contribute air pollutant, particularly for congested city street conditions and other low speed circumstances. Concentrations of air pollutants and adverse respiratory health effects are greater near the road than at some distance away from the road.{{cite web| title = Traffic-related Air Pollution near Busy Roads| work =| publisher = American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine Vol 170. pp. 520-526| date = 2004| url = http://ajrccm.atsjournals.org/cgi/content/full/170/5/520| format = Web| doi =| accessdate = -->

Driving on the right or the left 's Great Ocean Road reminding foreign motorists to keep left.

Traffic flows on the right or on the left side of the road depending on the country. In countries where traffic flows on the right, traffic signs are mostly on the right side of the road, roundabouts and traffic circles go counter-clockwise, and pedestrians crossing a two-way road should watch out for traffic from the left first. In countries where traffic flows on the left, the reverse is true.

About 34% of the world by population drive on the left, and 66% keep right. By roadway distances, about 28% drive on the left, and 72% on the right,{{cite web|last=Lucas|first=Brian|year=2005|url=http://www.brianlucas.ca/roadside/|title= Which side of the road do they drive on?|accessdate=2006-08-03--> even though originally most traffic drove on the left worldwide.

Construction . Armored bulldozer. Heavy bulldozers are powerful tools making them highly suitable for large Earthworks (engineering) projects.

Road construction requires the creation of a continuous Rights of way in the United Kingdom, overcoming geographic obstacles and having Grade (slope) low enough to permit vehicle or walking. (pg15) and may be required to meet standards set by law or official guidelines. The process is often begun with the removal of earth and rock by digging or blasting, construction of Embankment (transportation)s, bridges and tunnels, and removal of vegetation (this may involve deforestation) and followed by the laying of pavement (material). A variety of heavy equipment is employed in road building. {{cite web | title = Volvo Construction Equipment (Europe} | work = Building the cities, towns, streets, highways and bridges in your neighborhood and in communities around the globe | publisher = Volvo | date = 2007 | url = http://www.volvo.com/constructionequipment/europe/en-gb/work+solutions/government/introduction.htm | format = Web | doi = | accessdate = April 20, 2007 -->

After design, Approval rating, planning, legal and environmental considerations have been addressed alignment of the road is set out by a Surveying. The Intrinsic coordinates and Slope are designed and staked out to best suit the natural ground levels and minimize the amount of cut and fill. (page34) Great care is taken to preserve reference Benchmark (surveying) (page59)

Roadways are designed and built for primary use by vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Storm drainage and environmental considerations are a major concern. Erosion and sediment controls are constructed to prevent detrimental effects. Drainage lines are laid with Seal (mechanical) joints in the easement with runoff coefficients and characteristics adequate for the Zoning and storm water system. Drainage systems must be capable of carrying the ultimate design flow from the upstream catchment with approval for the outfall from the appropriate authority to a watercourse, stream, river or the sea for drainage discharge. (page38 to 40)

A Borrow pit (source for obtaining fill, gravel, and rock) and a water source should be located near or in reasonable distance to the road construction site. Approval from local authorities may be required to Water well or for Gravel of materials for construction needs. The top soil and vegetation is removed from the borrow pit and stockpiled for subsequent rehabilitation of the extraction area. Side slopes in the excavation area not steeper than one vertical to two horizontal for safety reasons. (page 53 to 56 )

Old road surfaces, fences, and buildings may need to be removed before construction can begin. Trees in the road construction area may be marked for retention. These protected trees should not have the topsoil within the area of the tree's drip line removed and the area should be kept clear of construction material and equipment. Compensation or replacement may be required if a protected tree is damaged. Much of the vegetation maybe mulched and put aside for use during reinstatement. The topsoil is usually stripped and stockpiled nearby for rehabilitation of newly constructed embankments along the road. Stumps and roots are removed and holes filled as required before the earthwork begins. Final rehabilitation after road construction is completed will include seeding, planting, watering and other activities to reinstate the area to be consistent with the untouched surrounding areas. (page 66 to 67 )

Processes during earthwork include excavation, removal of material to spoil, filling, compacting, construction and trimming. If rock or other unsuitable material is discovered it is removed, moisture content is managed and replaced with standard fill compacted to 90% relative compaction. Generally blasting of rock is discouraged in the road bed. When a depression must be filled to come up to the road grade the native bed is compacted after the topsoil has been removed. The fill is made by the "compacted layer method" where a layer of fill is spread then compacted to specifications, the process is repeated until the desired grade is reached. (page 68 to 69 )

General Fill dirt should be free of organics, meet minimum California bearing ratio (CBR) results and have a low Atterberg limits#Plasticity index. Select fill (sieved) should be composed of gravel, decomposed Rock (geology) or crushed rock below a specified Particle size and be free of large lumps of clay. Loam fill may also be used. The road bed must be "proof rolled" after each layer of fill is compacted. If a Road roller passes over an area without creating visible deformation or spring the section is deemed to comply. (page 70 to 72 )

The completed road way is finished by Pavement (material) or left with a gravel or other Dirt road surface. The Types of road surface is dependent on economic factors and expected usage. Road-traffic safety improvements like Traffic signs, Crash barriers, Raised pavement markers, and other forms of Road surface marking are installed.

Duplication When a single carriageway road is converted into dual carriageway by building a second separate carriageway alongside the first, it is usually referred to as duplication Glossary: Princes Highway, Traralgon Bypass - Planning Assessment Report at The State of Victoria (Australia) or twinning. The original carriageway is changed from two-way to become one-way, while the new carriageway is one-way in the opposite direction. In the same way as converting railway lines from Single track (rail) to double track, the new carriageway is not always constructed directly alongside the existing carriageway.

Sometimes, the new carriageway may be constructed along one side of the existing carriageway for some distance, then constructed on the opposite side. When this occurs, the existing carriageway is split and joined to the new sections, with a short section of the old carriageway being torn up and turned into median.

Maintenance Like all structures, roads deteriorate over time. Deterioration is primarily due to accumulated damage from vehicles, however environmental effects such as frost heaves, thermal cracking and oxidation often contribute. According to a series of experiments carried out in the late 1950s, called the AASHO Road Test, it was empirically determined that the effective damage done to the road is roughly proportional to the 4th power of axle weight. A typical tractor-trailer weighing 80,000 pounds with 8,000 pounds on the steer axle and 36,000 pounds on both of the tandem axle groups is expected to do 7,800 times more damage than a passenger vehicle with 2,000 pounds on each axle.

Pavements are designed for an expected service life or design life. In some UK countries the standard design life is 40 years for new bitumen and concrete pavement. Maintenance is considered in the whole life cost of the road with service at 10, 20 and 30 year milestones. Roads can be and are designed for a variety of lives (8-, 15-, 30-, and 60-year designs). When pavement lasts longer then its intended life, it may have been overbuilt, and the original costs may have been too high. When a pavement fails before its intended design life, the owner may have excessive repair and rehabilitation costs. Many concrete pavements built since the 1950's have significantly outlived their intended design lives. Some roads like Chicago, Illinois's "Wacker Drive", a major two-level viaduct in downtown area are being rebuilt with a designed service life of 100 years.

Virtually all roads require some form of maintenance before they come to the end of their service life. Maintenance treatments for asphalt concrete generally include crack sealing, surface rejuvenating, Fogseal, micro-milling and thin surfaceings. Thin surfacing preserves, protects and improves the functional condition of the road while reducing the need for routing maintenance, leading to extended service life without increasing structural capacity.

Terminology

All-weather road - Unpaved road that is constructed of a material that does not create mud during rainfall.
Bollard#Roads - Rigid posts that can be arranged in a line to close a road or path to vehicles above a certain width
Byway (road) - Highway over which the public have Rights of way in the United Kingdom for vehicular and other kinds of traffic, but which is used mainly as footpaths and bridleways
Bypass (road) Road that avoids or "bypasses" a built-up area, town, or village
Bottleneck - Section of a road with a carrying capacity substantially below that of other sections of the same road
Botts' dots - Non reflective raised pavement marker used on roads
Cat's eye (road) - Reflection (physics) raised pavement marker used on roads
Chicane - Sequence of tight serpentine curves (usually an S-shape curve or a bus stop) in a roadway
Chipseal - Road surface that is cheaper than asphalt concrete or a concrete, in the United States it is usually only used on smaller county roads
Corniche - Road on the side of a cliff or mountain, with the ground rising on one side and falling away on the other
Curb (road) - Edge where a raised sidewalk, road median, or road shoulder meets an unraised street or other roadway.
Curb extension - (or also kerb extension, bulb-out, nib, elephant ear, curb bulge and blister) Traffic calming measure, intended to slow the speed of traffic and increase driver awareness, particularly in built-up and residential neighborhoods.
Fork (road) - (literally "fork in the road") Type of Intersection (road) where a road splits
Guard rail - Prevents vehicles from veering off the road into oncoming traffic, crashing against solid objects or falling from a road
Green lane - (UK) Unsurfaced road, may be so infrequently used that vegetation colonises freely, hence 'green'. Many green lanes are ancient routes that have existed for millennia, similar to a Byway (road)
Interstate Highway System - United States System of Interstate and Defense Highways
central reservation - On divided roads, including expressways, motorways, or autobahns, the central reservation British English, median North American English, median strip (North American English and Australian English), neutral ground English or central nature strip (Australian English) is the area which separates opposing lanes of traffic
Mountain pass - Lower point that allows easier access through a range of mountains
Milestone - One of a series of numbered markers placed along a road at regular intervals, showing the distance to destinations.
Pedestrian crossing - Designated point on a road at which some means are employed to assist pedestrians wishing to cross safely
Private highway - Highway owned and operated for profit by private industry
Private road - Road owned and maintained by a Person, organization, or company rather than by a government
Public space - Place where anyone has a right to come without being excluded because of socioeconomics conditions
Ranch road - United States road which serves to connect rural and agricultural areas to market towns
Road number - Often assigned to a stretch of public roadway. The number chosen is often dependent on the types of road, with numbers differentiating between interstates, motorways, Arterial roads, and so forth
Road-traffic safety - Process to reduce the harm (deaths, injuries, and property damage) resulting from crashes of road vehicles traveling on public roads
Roadworks - Part or all of the road has to be occupied for work or maintenance relating to the road
Shoulder (road) - Reserved area by the verge of a road, generally it is kept clear of all traffic
State highway - Road numbered by the state, falling below numbered national highways (like United States Numbered Highways) in the hierarchy OR A road maintained by the state, including nationally-numbered highways
Traffic calming - Set of strategies used by urban planners and traffic engineering (transportation)s which aim to slow down or reduce traffic, thereby improving safety for pedestrians and bicycle-friendlys as well as improving the environment for residents
Traffic light - also known as a traffic signal, stop light, stop-and-go lights, robot or semaphore, is a signaling device positioned at a road intersection, pedestrian crossing, or other location in order to indicate when it is safe to cross a road
United States Numbered Highways - Often called U.S. Routes or U.S. Highways is an integrated system of roads and highways in the United States numbered within a nationwide grid